Concept of Political Development & its Importance - B.A Political Science Notes- Unit III- | Paper VIII || Study material and Notes for B. A Fourth semester

 

Political development

Concept of Social Change ; Definition , Characteristics, Patterns or mode , Factors & Hindrance of social change.- B.A Political Science Notes Paper VIII

 

Social Change

 

Social change is a natural part of the process of human growth and evolution. Several internal and external factors play a major role in the process. Further, the nature of social change can be progressive or regressive, temporary or permanent, planned or unplanned, unidirectional or multidirectional, beneficial or harmful.

 

Definition

According to H M Johnson."social change mean change in social structure"

 

 According to Koenig," Social change may be defined as in patients on model social change refers to the modification which occurs in the life pattern of a people."

 

According to Lundberg, "Social change is any modification in established pattern of inter-human relationships and standards of conduct.

 

Essential characteristics of social change

 

1.    University of social change; Social change is universal. It characterises every society. No society is static. It is continuously in flux.

2.    Social change is not uniform; Social change differs from society to society. Change is the Spice of life. However it cannot be progressive or regressive, positive or negative, permanent or temporary, planned or unplanned, unidirectional or multidirectional, beneficial or harmful.

3.    Social change involves community change; Social change does not mean the change in life of an individual or several individuals or some groups of individual.

4.    Social change is again relative to time; Social change characterizes its society. Its speed however always differs from time to time and is not essentially uniform.

5.    Social change source a chain reaction sequence: Social change always comes under the impact of several social, economic, technological and situational factors. it very often show a Chain Reaction sequence that is changed in one part or factor leads to change in other parts or factor and then it change in the way of life of the community of people takes place.

 

Patterns or mode of social change

 

Social change is a Universal process but it was in several ways: Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Marx, MacIver, Sorokin and several other sociologists have tried to explain the modes for patterns in different ways.

 

1.    Social change to evolution; Evolutionary process tells that social change is like an evolutionary change which occurs due to internal forces within society. In the process, the society changes over from a simple to a complex society.

2.    Social change through progress; progress indicates a very definite direction of change; it means that the society in its present state is going forward in accordance with the desired and needs of the people.

3.    Social change through development; In the process of development there is a realization that  society is moving forwards but there is no questions of its being good or bad.  Development means changes in social life of the people. It is also a mode of social change.

4.    Social change through revolution; There is always a social discontent and conflict which when touches it extreme point, the dissatisfied and downtrodden sections of society get United and organises a revolution for bringing about a fundamental all round changes in society.

5.    Social change through social movement; Social movement is the active action for endeavours which are undertaken to eradicate Evil social customs, religions, misbelievers, cultural and social discrimination. Such endeavor may be individuals or collective and their aims to make the life of individual.

Factors of social change

 

Many factors which affect social change can be discussed as follows:

 

1.    Natural factors; Natural forces and factors plays an important role in unifying or disintegrating the society. This factors and forces acts as a source of big loss for the victims. This initiative effort aims to rapid reconstructions and development.

2.    Geographical factors of social change; The geographical condition always affects the social system and acts as factors of social change. The cultural life of the people depends upon the physical environment, progress also depends upon the availability of natural resources, their exploitation and how are these being recouped and preserved.

3.    Biological factors; Biological factors are those factors which determine the structure selections and hereditary qualities of generations.

4.    Demographic factors; The demographic factors always influence the process and nature of social change. The population increase or decrease always brings social problems. When the birth rate in a society exceeds death-rate, population begins to rise. A constantly rising population gives birth to poverty, unemployment, disease and several other related problems.

5.    Cultural factors; The cultural factor also plays a role in bringing about social change. Our social life depends upon on ourbeliefs, ideas, values, custom conventions, Institution and the like. When there is a change in this, it influences the social life.

6.    Science and Technology as factors of social change: Science and technology happens to be the most important factors of social change. New scientific inventions and technologies always greatly influence the social life.

 

Hindrance in the way of social change.

 

The following have been some of the major hindrances in the way of social change;

 

1.    Traditionalism and social conservatism; Traditionalism acts as one of the greatest hindrance in the way of social change. Every human being loves is traditions, customs and way of life. He respects the traditional Institutions and distrust new social inventions.

2.    Ignorance; Ignorance is the second major hindrance in the way of social change. The ignorant and the illiterates always have a deep faith in their blind belief.

3.    Indolence; People also refused to accept social innovations due to their indolences and mental inertia in European societies.

4.    Religion; Religion also acts as a hindrance in the way of social change. According to Marx religion acts as opium for the people. Religion gives birth to blind beliefs, rituals and superstitions.

5.    Caste system; This caste system is another hindrance in the way of social change. Due to caste system the society remains divided into several caste and subcaste. It generates and maintains a system of social inequality and discrimination.

6.    Vested interests; Some vested interests raised hue and cry again social reforms and changes. The Fundamentalist always of oppose change. They try to live by their religious dictates and traditions and are not prepared to accept the new change and inventions.

7.    Economic cost;. Despite the presence of hindrance, social change always takes place in every society. It is a natural universal feature of every social system of the world.

 

Theories of social change

 

1.    Theory of deterioration; Some thinkers identify social changes with deterioration. According to Indian mythology man has passed through four ages. Satyug, where there was the best age, in which man was honest, truthful and perfectly happy. Treat, Draper and Kaliyug. Thereafter, degeneration began to take place. The modern age is the age of Kalyug wherein man is deceitful, treacherous false, dishonest, selfish and consequently unhappy. This view of social change as deterioration dates ancient times.

2.    Linear evolutionary theory; Auguste Comte believes that human societies evolved in a unilinear Fashion that is in one line of development. He identified three states of social revolutions or changed.  The age of theology, the age of metaphysics, and the age of positivism.

3.    Telic Theory of social change; Lester F-Ward has asserted that progress can be achieved by means of purposive effort or conscious planning. Through education and knowledge intellect can assert itself over emotion and this can lead to the possibility of effective planning.

4.    Cyclical theory of social change; Splengler developed a version of cyclical Theory of social change. He Analyse the history of various civilisations including the Egyptian, Greek and Roman concluded that all Civilization pass through a similar cycle of birth, maturity and death.

5.    Structural - functional Theory of social change; Structural is an arrangement or units for the performance of function. Function is the consequent of the activities of structure. Its structures serve its own function and at the same time help other to function. In this way the whole social system functions and undergoes social change.

6.    Deterministic Theory of social change; The deterministic theory has been a widely popular Theory of social change among several contemporary sociologists.  According to this theory there are certain forces, social or natural or both, which bring about social change and the circumstances which determine the cause of social change.

7.    Conflict Theory of social change; Several sociology emphasizes the importance of conflict in social change. Conflict theory is quite impressive and influential but it does not account for all forms of social change. It does not tell us much about the direction of social change.

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Concept of The military and politics; Form of military intervention , Characteristic & Role of the military | Unit IV - B.A Political Science - Paper VIII

 

Unit IV

 

The military and politics

Introduction:

 

The military as a Supreme coercive institution plays a crucial role not just in society, but also in politics. The frequent military Coups in many third world countries for decades after World War II show the impact of the armed forces in democratic politics. The military has played the role of an agent of political change or conservatism.

 

Form of military intervention

 

Military intervention is in politics is a General phenomenon but this phenomenon takes various form.

 The form can be described in following bye S.E Finer as:

1.    Influence.

2.    Blackmail

3.    Displacement

4.    Supplantment.

 

1.    Influence:  At the lowest to label political actions of any military organisations will not be different from any other pressures group that is influencing the decision makers.

2.    Blackmail; The activity of the military will include lobbying within the policy maker process on questions of weaponry procurement where the military want a shift of policy, particularly in Foreign Affairs or territorial matters. It may Resort to blackmail activities.

3.    Displacement; It occurs when the military directly interventions in politics to create conditions for exchange of civilian government or even dictate what type of civilian government will be allowed to function. Intervention took place in Germany throughout the year of the Weimar Republic.

4.    Supplantment; It is direct military rule. the military removes the civilian Government abolishes parties and take the government over. Such  military takes over have been frequent in Latin America, Africa and South East Asia.

 

Characteristic of the military

 Generally the armed forces developed certain characteristic feature which distributes them from other groups in all political system.

 

1.    The army is "the embodiment of national interests"; the member of the arms forces must have personal courage, endurance and readiness for self sacrifice.

2.    The arms forces are more strongly organised than other powerful civilian groupings. They have a highly centralised command, strict hierarchy and discipline and obedience to higher command.

3.     The armed forces are trained to fight war which occurs occasionally and may indeed never take place. The military is to be prepared for an eventually,  inorder to achieve the state of readiness.

4.     The military emphasis more the conflictual nature of international society and less on cooperation among Nations. The conception of society explains why the top brass of the armed force always a demand that the Nation's be prepared not just from a material, but from a psychological point of view.

 

Thus, In all political system the military possesses certain advantage characteristics vis-a-vis other civilian groupings which says S.E Finer allow the military to intervene in politics.

 

Condition favouring intervention in politics

 

Four elements are essentially in this respect;

 

1.    A degree of professionalization; A high degree of professional professionalization foster military intervention because it will affect the degree of pride in its own values and attitudes as distinct and separate from the rest of the society.

2.    Legitimacy of the political system; The greater the legitimacy of the political system, the less the probability of military intervention.

3.    Socio economic development; The higher level of socio economic development and the consequent complexity of the political, social and economic system set limited to the method used by the military and the levels to which intervention is pressed.

4.    Ideology; This is the important element of the prevailing ideology of the polity. If the values held by the military differ sharply from prevailing ideologies it is likely that military intervention will increase.

 

 

Summing up military intervention in politics takes place in any political system, but it assumes many forms.

 

Limited intervention in liberal democracies

 

Military intervention in the political process takes place in liberal democracies and socialist state but such intervention is usually of mildest form; seeking influence like any other pressures group in society. Alan Ball says, “Direct military intervention in the political process is the exception rather than the rule in liberal democracies and socialist state such as the Soviet Union". In democracy civilian politician complete church of the Nations affairs and remain accountable to the people.

Generally, the military seeks to influence government policy especially in foreign policy and defence matter and makes demand on the financial resources of the state. The service chief like Civil Servant is heavily involved in decision making, particularly in Great Britain and the United States.

 

There are several social societal factors that account for the low level of military interference in the political process of liberal democracies

a.     They have undergone a relatively stable process of industrialisation and have a highly Complex political, social and economic system.

b.    The network of state and other public Institutions and organised group is so vast and diffuse in an advanced society that military intervention.

c.     This tends to reduce the divergence between the value of the civilian elites and the military Elite.

 

 

 

The important of the military lies not only as a group influencing the policy- making process, it is also important as an executor of policy. The military is politicised when they are asked to break Industrial strikes in quelling public outburst and disorder within nation

Role of the military in third world politics

 The threat of a military cop has long been a feature of political life of the overwhelming majority of third world countries. The end of the Second World War military intervention in politics has been the norm rather than the exception in the third world.

 

a.     Form of military intervention: Military Coups in the third world may result in the establishment of military rule. Military regimes are however normally transient.  "Military rule lasted only 6 year on average in the post 1945 period, and this average is almost the same for each of the regions of the developing world that is Middle East and North Africa, South and South East Asia, and  Latin America.

b.    Explaining military coups: It is generally agreed that frequent military intervention in politics of many newly Independent and developing countries of the third world are closely linked to a number of factors; low level of socio economic and political development, the absence of effective Bureaucracy and parties and group structures, nature of the military response to the developing politics that face the countries and low level of political culture.

In some of the country the national army is in many cases a new Institution let by the elite of a new middle class. In Egypt, Burma, Pakistan and some other countries of Central and West Africa, young modern military leaders over threw corrupt parliamentary regimes of feudal autocrafts in order to provide a strong and efficient government necessary to carry development policies.

c.     Direct intervention: Direct interventions may take place the form of exerting direct pressure groups inorder to achieve a particular political goals. The military seek to achieve either by revolt or trade of violence. The military plays this role in any type of political system.  To quote Allan Ball,   " Direct interference by the military in politics but falling short of the assumption of power by the military may occur in any type of political system."

 

Military intervention is the product of two set of force:

a.     The capacity and volition of the armed force to intervene on the one land.

b.    The Socio Political factors on the other.

 

Generally speaking, the less dependent the government is upon the military for its continuance in power, the less likely military intervention will be.

 

Conclusion : Though liberal democracy was highly entrenched  in France, the instability of the successive Government and the politics of importance at the fourth Republic allowed the army and specially the army in Algeria to challenge the legitimacy of the government as the civilian government has been strengthen the strong political influence of the army dwindled.

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Concept of Authority - Nature and Type; Authority and Legitimacy- Unit II - B.A - Political Science - Paper VIII

 

Unit II

Authority -  Nature and Type; Authority and Legitimacy

Concept of Power, nature and type; authority and legitimacy; Unit II - B.A Political Science - Paper VIII

 

Unit II

Power and authority:

 Concept of power, nature and type, authority and legitimacy

Power is the Hallmark of politics. It is the primary features of every political activity. In fact a political activity is most popularly defined as an activity which involves power to a significant extent. Political is popularly defined as the process of struggle for power among groups of people.

Definition

It is not easy to define power. It is defined differently by various social scientists.

According to M G Smith, "Power is the ability to act effectively over people and things using means ranging from persuasion to coercion."

According to MacIver “Power is centralised, regulate or direct the behaviour of persons or things."

According to Robert Dahl "Power is defined as a special case of influence involving severe losses for non-compliance."

 

Nature

 

Four main nature of power:

1.    Power is relational; Power is a relationship. It is not something concrete or tangible thing like wealth. It exists only when a minimum of two actors are present, one of whom has the ability to secure a desired change in the behaviour at the other by the use of coercion or threat of use force.

2.    Power is reciprocal; our relationship is a two ways process each actor has power to some degree. The persons under the power of a powerful person are not totally powerless. They are only less powerful than the power holder.

3.    Power is relative; Power is always relative; a powerful person does not mean that he has power over all others and that he is not under the power of someone else.

4.    Actual power and potential power; While analysing the power of an actor one has two analyses: its two dimension; actual power and potential power

a.     Actual power means the power which the power holder is actually in currently using in a situation.

b.     Potential power means the power which a person can use.

 

Power: type or kinds

 

1.    Legitimate power; When the source of power is the law of the constitutions or the customs and traditions it is called legitimate power.

2.    Illegitimate power ; It refers to the power of the power which is based upon his ability to use force suppressions,  repressions, violence and dominance.

3.    Direct power; When the power holder directly exercises power over his subject it is called direct power.

4.    Indirect power; When the power holder exercises his power not directly but indirectly through his agents it is called indirect power.

5.    Manifest power; It refers to the power clearly vested in the power holder by the constitutions or laws or laws or customs or traditions.

6.    Implied power; A power which exercises in the process of using a manifest power is called in implied power.

7.    Centralised power; When the power is concentrated in the hands of a person or a small group it is called centralised power.

8.    Decentralized power; When the power is shared by several individuals group and institutions that is when powers stand divided among several actors and Groups it is called the centralised power.

9.    Bilateral and unilateral power; Power is reciprocal; the power of the powerful person is relative to the power of his subject it is called bilateral power. However in some cases only the power holder has power over his subject then it is called unilateral power..

10.                       National power; National power refers to the ability of a nation to pursue its desired goal in International Relations.

Form or modes of power.

1.    Political power; Political power can be defined as the power to make and implement laws, policies and decisions by the use of force Cohesion or threat of use of force.

2.    Economic power; Economic power is the power resulting from the ownership of means of production of goods and services that is material means of life; it is the power of wealth.

3.    Ideological power; Ideological power is the third form of power. It is the most subtle form of power use of ideology for securing legitimacy is a standard practice with the rulers, political parties and their leaders always use ideology for securing support for their leadership and policies.

Politics as struggle for power involves all these three forms of power which are used by the powerful person for exercising ruling power over the people.

 

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